Submerging cut fruits and vegetables in water with a slight acid content keeps them from turning brown during food preparation, and helps firm the texture and remove odors from offal.

I. Add 1 tablespoon cider vinegar or distilled white vinegar or 2 tablespoons lemon juice to each 1 quart water.

II. See Antibrowning Solutions for Canning Fruits and About Freezing Fruit for acidulated solutions appropriate for those applications.

This classic garnish glorifies the most commonplace dishes. As a variation for a vegetable garnish, substitute hulled pumpkin or sesame seeds for the almonds.

Melt in a small skillet:

Add and stir over low heat until the nuts are lightly browned:

Once browned, you may season the crumbs with bits of finely crumbled cooked bacon, minced toasted nuts, finely grated Parmesan, minced fresh herbs or crumbled dried herbs, finely grated lemon zest, black pepper, or red pepper flakes. These flavorful crumbs make an excellent topping for green salads, roasted vegetable dishes, sautéed greens, and pasta dishes.

Heat in a skillet over medium heat:

If desired, reduce the heat to low, add, and cook for 5 minutes:

Remove the garlic from the pan. Increase the heat to medium and stir in:

Cook, stirring occasionally, until the crumbs turn golden brown. If desired, mince the cooked garlic cloves and stir into the crumbs.

“Au gratin” is a term that, in America, is usually associated with cheese. But the term may refer to any topping of fine fresh or dry bread crumbs or even crushed cornflakes, cracker crumbs, or finely ground nuts on casseroles (see About Casseroles), creamed dishes, stuffed vegetables, or any dish where a browned, crispy upper crust is desired.

Sprinkle over the food in a light but thorough covering:

Unless otherwise directed, bake in a 375°F oven until a crisp, golden brown crust forms. Or preheat the broiler and place the dish 3 inches below the heat. Allow it to brown, checking frequently.

Mix together:

Sprinkle in a light but thorough covering over the food. Scatter over the top:

Unless otherwise directed, bake in a 375°F oven to produce a crisp, golden crust. Or preheat the broiler and place the dish 5 inches below the heat. Allow it to brown, checking frequently.

Combine in a medium bowl:

Sprinkle in a light but thorough covering over the food. Scatter over the top:

Unless otherwise directed, bake in a preheated 350°F oven to produce a crisp, golden crust. Or preheat the broiler and place the dish 5 inches below the heat. Allow it to brown, checking frequently.

Here we use jars, a stand mixer, a blender, or a food processor (use a butter churn for larger amounts of cream). Shaking the cream in a jar is the simplest method, if your arms are up to it. Try to keep the cream between 50° and 55°F throughout the churning process. Since the cream will be heated up slightly by all of these methods (with the possible exception of a stand mixer), we recommend chilling it to about 48°F.

Refrigerate 2 clean 1-quart glass jars with tight-fitting lids for 30 minutes. Divide equally between the cold jars:

Tightly secure the lids and place one jar in the refrigerator. Shake the other jar as hard as possible until chunks of butter start to form, 15 to 20 minutes. Pour into a sieve set over a bowl. The chunks in the sieve are butter and the liquid in the bowl is buttermilk. Pour the buttermilk into a clean container, cover, refrigerate, and reserve for another use; keep in mind that it cannot be substituted for cultured buttermilk called for in recipes. Immediately turn the butter into a clean bowl and cover with ice water. Repeat this process with the other jar, adding the butter to the bowl of ice water. Gather and mash the curds together against the side of the bowl with a wooden spoon or between butter paddles (see illustration below); knead the mass of butter for a minute or so to release residual buttermilk. Pour off the cloudy liquid, add more cold water, and knead again. Repeat this process until the water is nearly clear after kneading and drain thoroughly. If desired, fold into the butter with a wooden spoon:

Transfer the butter to a clean container pressing with a wooden spoon or spatula to dispel any air bubbles. The butter may be molded or rolled, then wrapped in parchment or wax paper.

Add to a blender, food processor, or stand mixer fitted with the whisk attachment:

Blend or mix on high speed. For a food processor, process only 2 cups of the cream at a time, keeping the rest refrigerated. In the blender and food processor, the cream will eventually form curds; in the stand mixer, the cream will become whipped cream first before the buttermilk begins pooling in the bottom. Drain off the buttermilk and proceed to knead and rinse the butter as directed for version I.

You may use an actual cream culture from a cheesemaking supply company to inoculate the cream, but a number of commonly available products have active cultures in them. To every 1 quart heavy cream, add ½ cup plain yogurt, kefir, crème fraîche, or cultured buttermilk. To use a cream culture, add as much as directed on the package. Let the cream sit at room temperature in a covered jar or bowl for 24 hours, chill in the refrigerator until it is around 50°F, and then proceed as for Homemade Sweet Cream Butter.

Clarified or drawn butter has had its water evaporated and milk solids removed. The result is pure butter fat, which has a very high smoke point of 485°F—making it a flavorful substitute for vegetable oils and lard for searing, sautéing, and frying. Ghee, which is used extensively in the cuisines of India and South Asia, is cooked longer, which toasts and caramelizes the milk solids, imparting a nutty flavor.

Melt in a saucepan over low heat:

Once melted, do not stir. Skim off any foam that comes to the surface.

For clarified butter, remove from the heat after the foaming ceases. Let stand a few minutes, allowing the milk solids to settle to the bottom. Carefully pour the liquid into a heatproof container, leaving the solids behind, or pour through a fine-mesh sieve lined with a coffee filter or flour sack towel.

For ghee, continue heating the butter over the lowest heat possible, keeping it below a simmer until golden and brown milk solids have settled at the bottom of the pan. This can take up to 1 hour. At this slow rate, the milk solids settle nicely. Pour or strain into a container as for clarified butter.

Both can be stored in an airtight container for 6 to 8 months in the refrigerator. When chilled, clarified butter and ghee become grainy. They should not be used as a spread, only in cooking.

This is one of the simplest cheeses to make at home, and the result is a soft, spreadable, lightly tangy cheese that can be enjoyed as is or flavored with garlic, herbs, or spices.

Add to a large stainless steel pot:

Heat the milk over medium heat, stirring frequently, to 86°F. Remove from the heat and add:

Stir continuously for 1 minute. Cover the pot and let sit for 30 minutes.

Combine in a 1-cup liquid measuring cup:

Uncover the pot. Add 1 teaspoon of the rennet mixture (discard the rest) and stir for 30 seconds. Cover the pot and let the curd form, undisturbed, for about 12 hours. The curd will be soft but set, somewhat like yogurt.

Line a colander with a clean flour sack towel and set it in the sink (if desired, place over a bowl to save the whey for another application like Ricotta). Scoop the curds into the colander and let them drain for 1 hour. Bring the corners of the towel together and tie them with kitchen string. Hang the curds and let them drain for 8 to 12 hours or until the desired consistency is reached.

Transfer the cheese to a bowl and stir in:

Store, covered and refrigerated, for up to 2 weeks.

This recipe produces small curd cottage cheese with a delicate tang.

Heat the milk over medium heat, stirring frequently, to 70° to 75°F. Stir in:

Let stand at room temperature until the milk forms a soft curd, 16 to 24 hours.

To see if the curd is ready, insert your well-washed finger into the curd at an angle, as if to lift some out. If the curd breaks cleanly over your finger, it is ready. Cut through it with a long knife or offset spatula, lengthwise and crosswise, as shown. Then hold the knife or spatula at an angle and make diagonal cuts at 1-inch intervals to form cheese-curd cubes. Let the curds set, undisturbed, for 15 minutes. Place the pot over medium-low heat and heat gently (the temperature should rise about 1 degree per minute), stirring every few minutes, until the curd reaches 98° to 100°F. Hold at this temperature, not higher, for 10 minutes, stirring gently every few minutes. Increase the temperature once again at the same rate until the temperature reaches 110° to 112°F. Hold at this temperature, stirring every few minutes, for 30 minutes.

To test for readiness, squeeze the curds: They should be slightly firm, break clean between your fingers and, when pressed, should not leave a semifluid milky residue. If needed, cook the curds a little longer. When they are firm, allow the curds to settle for 5 minutes. Pour off as much whey as possible (reserve it, if desired, to make Ricotta). Line a colander with butter muslin or a clean flour sack towel and set in the sink (place over a bowl to collect the remaining whey, if reserving). Gently pour or ladle the curds and whey into the colander and let drain for 5 minutes. Rinse the curds by holding the bag of curds with one hand and dunking it in cold water, gently massaging the bag with your other hand. Let drain again for 5 to 10 minutes. Add:

To make creamed cottage cheese, combine the cheese curds with:

Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

This is simply a lightly pressed version of cottage cheese.

Prepare Cottage Cheese. After draining the curds, do not rinse in cold water. Add:

Gather the curds together in the cloth, twisting the ends as tightly as possible to compress the curds into a disk. Place the cloth-wrapped curds on a rack set over a rimmed baking sheet and place a plate on top to weight the curds slightly. Let drain for 1 hour.

Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

Cream cheese is a white, soft, unripened cheese made from rich cow’s milk. This homemade version has the tang of store-bought cream cheese but is softer in texture. Please read Making Cheese at Home.

Bring to room temperature (70° to 75°F):

Stir in:

Cover tightly and let sit at room temperature until the milk curdles (it should form a solid but soft curd), 16 to 20 hours.

Line a colander with butter muslin or a clean flour sack towel and set in the sink (if desired, place over a bowl to save the whey for another application like Ricotta). Gently spoon the curd into the colander and allow to drain, stirring gently 2 or 3 times, for 6 to 8 hours, or until it reaches the desired thickness. If desired, add:

Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

Ricotta can also be made with the whey from other cheesemaking projects. Use the ratios given here, substituting whey for the milk. Keep in mind that because whey is low in protein and fat, the yield will be much smaller. Though not necessary, if you become an enthusiastic ricotta maker, we recommend purchasing a slotted ricotta basket mold from a cheesemaking supply store.

Combine in a large stainless steel pot:

Heat the milk to 190°F over medium heat, stirring often to prevent scorching. Add, stirring once and only once:

Remove from the heat and let sit, undisturbed, for 15 to 30 minutes. If no curds have formed after 30 minutes, heat the milk again to 190°F, stir in half as much lemon juice or citric acid as before, then let sit again for 15 to 30 minutes.

Line a colander with a clean flour sack towel and set in the sink. Scoop the curds into the colander and allow the cheese to drain for about 30 minutes or until the desired consistency is reached. Alternatively, use a ricotta basket to scoop the curds from the pot.

Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

There are many variables but, generally, the harder a cheese is pressed and the longer it is aged, the firmer it becomes. Except for the cheese press, which can be improvised as described below, semihard and hard cheeses can be made using regular sterile household equipment suggested in Making Cheese at Home. Mold-ripened cheeses like Roquefort and blue, which show a mold pattern throughout, are beyond the skills of most household operations. Cheddar calls for still another cooking operation and elaborate cutting and layering of the cheese—as well as longer aging for sharp Cheddar. For cheesemaking books that delve into more complex cheeses, see the bibliography.

If you plan on aging the cheese, make larger wheels to keep it from drying out too much.

Pour into a large stainless steel pan:

Add and stir well:

Cover and let stand at room temperature for 1 hour if using the mesophilic starter, 4 hours if using buttermilk.

Place the pan of cultured milk in a larger pan of hot water, set it over medium-low heat, and bring the temperature of the milk to 86°F. To color the cheese, stir into the milk as directed on the package:

Meanwhile, prepare a coagulant by stirring together until thoroughly dissolved:

Allow the milk to reach 88° to 90°F. Stir in the rennet solution and continue stirring about 30 seconds, then remove the pan from the hot water and allow the mixture to stand, covered and undisturbed, 30 minutes to 1 hour. It should coagulate during this period.

To see if the curd is ready, insert your well-washed finger into the curd at an angle, as if to lift some out. If the curd breaks cleanly over your finger, it is ready for cutting.

Cut the curd lengthwise and crosswise at ½-inch intervals, as shown below, using a long offset spatula or a stainless steel knife. Then cut diagonally at a 45-degree angle. These repeated cuts will divide the curd into small, even bits.

Use a wooden spoon to stir the curd for 15 minutes, using slow movements around the edges and up through the curd from the bottom to top, letting the portion you bring to the surface each time gently recede into the mass. Should there be some large curds, cut them with the spatula or knife into smaller pieces. The curds will begin to shrink in size as they separate from the yellowish whey.

Return the pan to the hot water bath set over low heat and slowly bring the curds and whey to 102°F over a 20- to 30-minute period, stirring every few minutes. Hold at 102°F for 30 to 40 minutes (if needed, take the water bath with the pan of cheese curds in it off the heat to avoid overshooting the temperature), stirring gently every few minutes. The curd is ready for firming when it forms a loose mass in your hand. The individual curds will be wheat berry–sized and the entire mass will look like eggs scrambled over too high heat.

To firm the curd, remove the pan from the hot water and let the curds and whey mixture stand, covered, for 1 hour. During this period, stir every 5 to 10 minutes.

To drain the curd, line a colander with a clean flour sack towel and set in the sink (if desired, place over a bowl to save the whey for another application like Ricotta). Ladle the curds and whey into the lined colander and drain off the whey by lifting the curds in the cloth and rolling the mass from one side of the cloth to the other. Now set the drained curd, still in the cloth, in the colander again. If desired, you may work into it with a well-washed hand:

Form the curd into a ball within the cloth and squeeze out as much whey as possible. Knot the cheesecloth around the ball to form a bag you can hang from the sink faucet and let the cheese drain another 20 minutes.

Just before pressing, you may add flavorings, such as:

Now prepare to press the cheese. As pressing is a drippy business, confine your activities to the sink area. If you have no cheese mold (they can be bought cheaply from cheesemaking supply companies), improvise one by poking holes into the bottom of a 7- to 8-inch-deep cylindrical plastic container 4 to 5 inches in diameter. Place it on a plate or baking sheet. You will also need two thick pieces of food-grade plastic that are just smaller in diameter than the mold (disks cut with a jigsaw from a cheap but sturdy plastic cutting board work well) and something heavy to weight them down (such as a can or brick). Line the mold with a 15-inch square of clean flour sack towel. Transfer the curds to the lined mold, spread them evenly, and fold the muslin or cheesecloth over the top so the curds are wrapped. Put one disk on top and weight it down with the can or brick. As the whey rises and runs or is poured off and the curds compress, place the second disk under the weight to allow pressure to continue.

During the next 20 minutes, increase the pressure by gradually adding weight until the total weight being used equals 25 pounds. This can be done by placing a small wooden cutting board on top of the can and placing weight on top of the cutting board (we have even used heavy books, like the cookbook you are holding in your hands, for this application). Then let the cheese rest in the press for 12 hours in a cool place (if possible, transfer to the refrigerator).

Remove the cheese from the press, unfold the muslin, and place the cheese on a rack. Allow to air-dry, unwrapped and on a wooden cutting board, in the refrigerator for 2 to 4 days, or until the surface of the cheese is dry. Turn the cheese a few times a day so both sides can dry out.

This so-called new cheese will be fairly bland in flavor. To age the cheese and allow it to develop its full flavor, when the exterior is absolutely dry, dip it into a thin coat of cheese wax, available from cheesemaking suppliers, to seal off the air and prevent mold. Date the wrapping with a label. Refrigerate on a rack where the temperature drops no lower than 35°F or in the vegetable crisper, where the temperature is about 40°F. Temperatures above 55°F cause the cheese to spoil. Flavor will develop within 1 to 2 months or longer.

If any surface mold has formed, wipe it off; or if it has penetrated the cheese, cut it out.

Feta is a brined cheese. Sometimes feta stored in brine gets soft and can even dissolve completely. This is due to calcium leaching out of the cheese. If desired, you can add calcium chloride to the brine as insurance against softening. Lipase is an enzyme that may be added to give the feta a punchier flavor. Both calcium chloride and lipase are available from cheesemaking supply companies.

Combine in a large saucepan:

Heat gently until the temperature of the milk reaches 86°F. Turn off the heat and add:

Cover and allow the milk to ripen for 1 hour.

Meanwhile, prepare a coagulant by stirring together until thoroughly dissolved:

Add to the milk and stir for about 30 seconds. Cover and let the curd form, undisturbed, for about 1 hour. To test the curd, wash your hands well and, using the back of your hand, gently press the curd mass down at the edge where the curd meets the pan. The curd should pull away neatly from the edge of the pan. Cut the curd into ½-inch cubes as shown and allow it to rest for 10 minutes. Gently stir the curds for 20 minutes. At first, they will be fragile, but they will firm as they expel whey.

Line a colander with a clean flour sack towel and set it in the sink (if desired, place over a bowl to save the whey for another application like Ricotta). Scoop the curds into the colander and let them drain for 10 minutes. Bring the corners of the towel together and tie them with kitchen string. Hang the curds from the sink faucet (or a cabinet knob or hook) and let the whey drain into the bowl for 4 hours.

Unwrap the curds, flip the curd mass, rewrap it, and hang it again for another 2 hours.

Unwrap the curds and cut into 1-inch cubes. They do not need to be perfect. Toss the cheese in a large bowl with:

Set the cheese cubes in a colander set over the bowl, cover, and place in the refrigerator. Allow the cheese to continue draining for about 2 more days; every so often, pour off the whey that has collected in the bowl. The first couple of times you drain the cheese, you may have to manually separate the cubes as they tend to knit together until they firm up.

When the cheese stops emitting whey, make a brine solution using:

Whisk to dissolve the salt. Pack the cheese cubes into a clean 1-quart glass jar and pour the brine over the cheese. If possible, use a plastic lid on the jar as the acidity of the cheese and the salt in the brine cause metal to corrode (or cover the top of the jar with a double layer of plastic wrap, then seal with a metal lid). Store, refrigerated, indefinitely. When you remove pieces of cheese from the jar, use clean tongs or a fork so as not to introduce bacteria or other contaminants into the jar.

For best results, do not use ultrapasteurized cream to make crème fraîche.

Combine in a jar or container:

Cover and let sit, at room temperature, until the cream thickens considerably and smells slightly sour, 12 to 36 hours.

Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

There are many different recipes for farofa, some including eggs, chorizo, or olives. This is a simple version, excellent for serving with Feijoada.

Heat in a large skillet over medium heat:

Cook, stirring, until browned and the bacon’s fat has rendered. Add to the skillet and melt:

Add and cook, stirring, until softened, about 5 minutes:

Add and stir constantly over the heat for 3 minutes:

Remove from the heat and stir in:

Chestnut flour is ground from raw or roasted dried chestnuts. It is an ancient staple of both Europe and North American indigenous tribes. The original polenta was made with chestnut flour, and the Cherokee used chestnut flour to make porridge and bread. Chestnut flour tends to clump and so should be sifted. Store chestnut flour in the freezer. Chestnut flour is very starchy and lightly sweet, and it gives baked goods a cakey texture. For more information on chestnuts, see here.

Coconut flour is high in fiber. Perhaps the most notable thing about coconut flour, other than its mild coconut flavor, is that it is extremely absorbent. If substituting coconut flour for some proportion of the all-purpose flour in a recipe, you will need to increase the liquid in the recipe, and the more coconut flour you use, the more liquid you will have to add to compensate.

Corn flour is milled from a particular type of corn called flour corn, which has a thin seed coat and a soft kernel. Use it in baking for added corn flavor, mixing it with other flours. Do not confuse corn flour with masa harina.

For information on cornmeal, see About Cornmeal, Hominy, and Grits. Note that when using cornmeal in baking recipes, because it is grainier than flour, it will add a slightly gritty, crumbly texture. For recipes written to use cornmeal, see our recipes for corn breads, Four-Grain Flapjacks, Cornmeal Pancakes, and Cornmeal Waffles. If a recipe calls for self-rising cornmeal and you want to make your own, add 1 ½ teaspoons baking powder and ½ teaspoon salt to each 1 cup cornmeal.

Oat flour is soft and starchy and can be an excellent addition to gluten-free baked goods, as it bakes up lighter than many other gluten-free flours without a trace of grittiness. Oat flour works especially well in cookies, cakes, and quick breads. For more information on oats, see here.

Made from whole cooked potatoes that have been dried and ground, potato flour is used chiefly in soups, gravies, breads, and cakes, in combination with other flours, or alone in sponge cakes. Potato flour is different from potato starch. To avoid lumping in cake batters, blend it with the sugar before mixing. In bread recipes, it yields a moist, slow-staling loaf. If using in breads, only add a small proportion of potato flour—about 10 percent of the total amount of flour. To use as a thickener in sauces and gravies, substitute 1 tablespoon potato flour for 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour.

A light-yellow flour with a grassy, earthy flavor, quinoa flour is best used with other flours so its flavor doesn’t overpower. For more information about quinoa, see here.

Both nonglutinous (nonwaxy) and glutinous (waxy) rice flours are used extensively across much of Asia. Both of these flours are used in combination with other flours for making gluten-free baked goods. Always buy white rice flour from Asian grocery stores, as some American brands are very gritty and will not yield the best results in baking.

Brown rice flour is grittier than white rice flour but has more flavor and is less gummy. Use it in tandem with white rice flour to get the starchy benefits of the white rice flour and the flavor and heartiness of the brown rice flour. Look for “superfine” brown rice flour.

For more information about rice, see here.

Sorghum flour is gluten-free and ground from the large yellow or white grain of sorghum. Sorghum flour is often used to add flavor and a whole-grain texture in gluten-free baking. It has a subtle flavor somewhat like cornmeal. It is used in combination with other flours in cookies, cakes, and bread, although some bakers report good results when using sorghum flour alone in place of all-purpose flour for pancakes and waffles. For more information about sorghum, see here.

Teff is the smallest grain, and the flour ground from it is very fine, with a deep brown color and malty flavor. Like most of the flours in this section, teff flour is best combined with other flours in baking due to its lack of gluten and distinctive flavor. For more information about teff, see here.

This mellows after a couple of days.

Combine in a bowl:

Cover and refrigerate overnight. Process in a blender until blended but still grainy. Store, covered and refrigerated, for up to 3 weeks.

Catch-in-the-throat Chinese and German mustards are made by blending dry mustard to a paste with a cold liquid such as water, flat beer, or vinegar. Use high-quality dry mustard for the best results. Use this mustard as is, or add one of the various flavorings recommended below. It is very sharp when freshly made, but mellows over time; we suggest refrigerating it, covered, for several days before serving it. This is wonderful spread on cold meat sandwiches, particularly roast beef or corned beef.

Combine in a bowl:

Let stand for 2 hours, then stir well again. Cover and refrigerate until ready to use. This will keep, covered and refrigerated, for 2 to 3 weeks.

Stir one of the following into Grainy Mustard or Hot Mustard.

Place in a food processor:

Process until the nuts gather into a ball, 2 to 3 minutes. Break up the ball with a spoon. If desired, add:

Process until the nuts release their oil and a butter forms. This generally takes 1 to 3 minutes but may take as long as 5 minutes, particularly if you are using almonds. Store the butter, covered, at room temperature for up to 2 weeks or refrigerate for up to 3 months.

This sesame seed paste will keep, refrigerated, in a tightly covered container for several months. Stir before use if the oil separates. Tahini is used in Hummus and Baba Ghanoush, but we also love it, in combination with honey, as a toast topping and whisked into the ganache for Dark Chocolate Truffles (whisk ¼ cup tahini into the ganache once it is smooth).

Preheat the oven to 350°F. Spread on a rimmed baking sheet:

Bake, shaking frequently, until fragrant, 8 to 10 minutes. Do not brown. Let cool completely. Put the seeds in a blender or food processor. Process until the seeds are finely ground and form a thick paste. Add slowly:

Process to a smooth paste, about 3 minutes. Add more oil if necessary to bring the paste to a thick but pourable consistency.

Nut and seed milks are milky-looking liquids derived from pureeing soaked nuts or seeds with water. While we may think of these milks as modern inventions, almond and walnut milks have long been known in Europe. Some nuts, such as hickory nuts and pecans, were used by North American indigenous peoples to make nut milks. While nut milks are by no means dairy milk’s nutritional equivalent, they are delicious and healthful in their own right, and a boon to those who cannot or choose not to drink milk. For soy milk, see Soy Milk and Tofu. For coconut milk, see here.

Nut and seed milks are easy to make. The only equipment necessary is a blender and something to strain the blended nut or seed and water mixture through. We have used flour sack towels for this purpose, but nut milk bags are the most efficient option (these are easily purchased from online retailers). Once the milk is strained, there will be pulp left behind in the towel or bag. This pulp can be kept refrigerated and used within a week, or spread it out on a baking sheet and dry it in a very low oven. Once fully dry, it can be ground in a food processor to break up any clumps, then stored at room temperature. We use the pulp in baked goods and smoothies or as a replacement for bread crumbs in some recipes.

Nut milks are as perishable as unpasteurized cow’s milk. Refrigerate them and use within a week. Because homemade nut and seed milks do not contain stabilizers, they will separate upon sitting. Simply shake them before use.

This recipe may be used as a template for making other kinds of nut and seed milks. Walnuts can make a good nut milk, but they are best blended with another nut, such as cashews, as they are very tannic. Rolled oats can also be processed as below, but they do not need to be soaked before blending.

Place in a medium bowl:

Add cold water to cover by 2 inches and let soak overnight.

Drain and place in a blender with:

Puree until the mixture is white and no large chunks of nuts or seeds are visible. Strain through a fine-mesh sieve, several layers of cheesecloth, a clean kitchen towel, or a nut milk bag. Press on the nut pulp with a spatula (or squeeze the cloth or bag) to extract as much milk as possible from the nuts. If desired, add to the milk:

Refrigerate and use within 1 week.

Flavored oils must be refrigerated, and most will hold their quality for at least 1 week. Prepare only as much as you will use in that time. For optimum flavor and texture, bring the amount of oil you will be serving to room temperature.

This cold infusion is the easiest to make. Use in vinaigrettes, drizzle over poached shellfish or grilled fish, chicken, or vegetables just before serving, or stir into hot tomato soup.

Combine in a sterilized 8- to 10-ounce jar:

Cover and shake the jar gently, then let steep in the refrigerator for up to 4 days. Strain the oil through a dampened paper coffee filter. The oil can be kept, covered and refrigerated, for no longer than 1 week.

Blanching the herbs sets their color and tints the oil an alluring green. If using rosemary, reduce the amount by half. To skip the filtering and give the resulting condiment more body, see Jen’s Basil Oil.

Have ready a bowl of ice water. Bring a pot of water to a boil. Blanch for 10 seconds in the boiling water:

Remove them quickly with a strainer and dunk in the ice water, swishing them around to be sure they’re all cold. Remove from the water and squeeze gently to remove the excess water. Coarsely chop the herbs and transfer to a blender. Add:

Blend until the herbs are pureed. The mixture will be very frothy. Let the puree settle for about 30 minutes. Pour into a jar through a fine-mesh sieve lined with several layers of cheesecloth or a coffee filter and leave to drain overnight. The next day, very gently push down on the solids to extract as much oil as possible. Use immediately or cover and refrigerate for up to 1 week. For the best flavor, let the oil come to room temperature before using.

Capsaicin, the compound responsible for the spiciness of chiles, is very effectively transferred to the oil, which, in turn, coats the tongue. Until you determine just how spicy the oil is, use sparingly and to taste. A few drops are superb in dipping sauces for dumplings or in dressings for vegetable dishes. If desired, add a few wide strips of orange zest, a cinnamon stick, or a tablespoon of Sichuan peppercorns for a more complex flavor. For a similar condiment, see Spicy Chinese Chile Crisp.

Have ready:

Or, coarsely grind in a blender or spice grinder:

Transfer to a small saucepan and add:

Heat over medium heat until the oil reaches 350°F, or until large bubbles appear. Remove from the heat, cover, and let sit for at least 4 hours.

Once cool, you may leave the oil unstrained, transfer to a sterile jar, and serve with a spoon for adding the chile flakes to dishes at the table. For a clear oil, pour through a fine-mesh sieve that has been lined with several layers of cheesecloth or a coffee filter. Push down on the solids to extract as much oil as possible. Cover and refrigerate for up to 1 month.

Combine in a small bowl:

Mix well. Store indefinitely in an airtight container at room temperature.

Smoked salts are made by smoking salt using any of a number of types of hardwood, such as hickory, apple, or cherry. Use as an ingredient in dry rubs or sprinkled on cooked meats, fish, vegetables, soups, and even on desserts where a smoky flavor is desired. See Smoking.

See Curing Salts.

Table salt is a finely grained free-flowing type of salt, composed of about 99 percent sodium chloride. Much table salt has added iodine (iodized salt), though it is possible to find table salt without added iodine. Iodized salt is recommended for certain regions where the water and soil lack iodine, an essential trace element. Most salt sold at supermarkets is iodized, and the label will say “iodized.” Do not use iodized salt in pickling or fermentation. The additives in the salt will cloud the brine and may impart undesirable flavors.

While there is no true substitute for salt, salt substitutes are available on the market. They are chloride salts in which sodium is replaced by calcium, potassium, or ammonia. Because they contain higher levels of other electrolytes in place of the sodium, they should be used only on the advice of a physician. Salt-free seasoning blends, different from a salt substitute, are a tasty alternative to salt and salt substitutes because they are sodium-free and free of the replacement electrolytes. Fresh lemon juice, chopped fresh herbs, and vinegar all make delicious sodium-free enhancements to food as well.

The directions given below are best for making tofu. To make soy milk destined for drinking or using on cereal, you need to remove more of the beany flavors: After soaking the beans, drain them and bring 8 cups water to a boil in a large pot. Add the beans; when the pot returns to a boil, reduce the heat and simmer for 4 minutes. Drain the beans in a colander and proceed to blend, simmer, and strain them as directed below.

Place in a medium bowl:

Add enough water to cover the beans by 3 inches and soak for 12 hours.

Drain the beans and puree in a blender until completely smooth with:

Pour into a large pot, being sure to scrape any bean mixture out of the bottom of the blender. Add:

Bring to a boil over medium-high heat, stirring gently with a wooden spoon to avoid scorching. When foam rises, remove the pot from the heat. Have ready a large colander lined with a nut milk bag or a generous square of thin cotton muslin. Set the lined colander over a large bowl and pour the soy mixture in gradually. Tighten the cloth or bag around the pulp—the okara—and press out as much milk as possible with the back of the spoon. When cool enough to handle, wring it out with your hands to extract all the liquid. Open the cloth, spread the pulp out in the cloth, and sprinkle over it:

Press and wring out the pulp one more time and set aside or discard (you may add the nutritious pulp to baked goods or veggie burgers). Clean out the large pot, pour the milk back into it, and bring to a simmer, stirring to prevent sticking. Reduce the heat to medium-low and cook for an additional 10 minutes (this will destroy the antinutrient trypsin). If you plan to make tofu, proceed as directed below. If not, cool the milk and refrigerate before serving.

Our favored coagulant to use for making tofu is nigari, the residue left when the sodium is extracted from seawater and evaporated (it contains magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and other trace elements). Nigari is readily available from online retailers in liquid and crystal form. Molds specifically designed for making tofu can also be found online. To improvise a mold, have ready two 1-quart capacity food-safe plastic containers of the type that nest. Perforate the bottom and lower portion of one container with holes about ¼ inch in diameter as though on a 1-inch grid. The other container may be partly filled with water to act as a weight (half full, it will weigh 1 pound).

Prepare:

When the milk has finished simmering, remove from the heat and let cool for 5 minutes. To make a coagulant, mix together in a small bowl until dissolved:

(If using gypsum, you will need to restir the mixture right before each addition to the soy milk.) Gently stir one-third of the coagulant solution into the hot soy milk. Sprinkle another one-third of the coagulant over the surface of the milk, cover the pot, and let it sit for 3 minutes. Sprinkle the remaining solution over the milk and gently stir the surface. Cover for 3 minutes if using nigari, or 6 minutes if using Epsom salts or gypsum. If curds do not form during this period, mix together in a small bowl:

Stir this into the soy milk and let sit for an additional 5 minutes. Line the tofu mold (the container with the holes) with a generous square of moist, thin muslin cloth and place the container in the sink. Gradually ladle the soy curd mixture into the mold and fold the ends of the cloth over the top. Place the top of the mold over the curd and place a 1-pound weight over it for medium-firm tofu, or a 3-pound weight for firm tofu. Let the curds compress for 20 minutes or until the whey is no longer expressed. Very gently unwrap the curd. Tofu is highly perishable; store it refrigerated in water for only a few days.

To cook tofu, see About Tofu, Tempeh, and Other Plant-Based Proteins.

Avoid potato and tomato seeds, which, when sprouting, are poisonous, and fava, lima, and kidney beans, which are extremely toxic raw. Use or buy seeds, preferably organically grown, that have not been chemically pretreated for agricultural purposes. Remove any damaged or moldy seeds.

If you cannot rinse and drain the sprouts at least twice daily, it is beneficial to purchase a sprouting device. Our favorite commercial sprouter is a 1-quart plastic container, engineered to maximize air circulation and regulate moisture. A wide-mouthed 1-quart jar with a mesh cover made from nylon or cheesecloth or commercial screw-on strainer lid is also quite effective.

Place in a 1-quart sprouting device or 1-quart wide-mouthed jar one of the following:

Rinse by swirling the seeds in cold water, drain, then add:

Too much water is fine because the seeds will absorb only what they can. Soak for 8 to 12 hours. Some seeds sprout better if soaked for less time—for example, hulled sunflower and pumpkin seeds sprout better when soaked for 1 to 2 hours.

Next morning, make sure the lid of the sprouting device is securely closed. If using a jar, cover the top with nylon mesh or cheesecloth attached to the jar by screwing the ring over the cloth or nylon or securing it with a rubber band, or screw on the straining lid. Drain, then rinse thoroughly once or twice with cool water. Drain all the water by shaking and spinning the jar or sprouting device vigorously. If using a jar, shake the seeds to spread over a larger area on the glass and store the jar on its side, propping it up at a slight angle so the screen side is facing down, to allow excess water to drain out while also allowing air circulation. Rinse the sprouts two or three times daily with cool water and drain them thoroughly after every rinse. Keep the sprouts out of direct sunlight, which will “cook” them and cause them to spoil.

Most sprouts develop in 3 to 5 days, and in some cases within 36 hours. Mung beans and soybeans may take up to 8 days. Taste them at every rinse-and-drain session to decide when you most enjoy the flavor. Typically, the smaller they are, the more tender. The sprouts will turn into plants eventually—a lentil, pea, or garbanzo sprout will produce a main stem, in addition to the sprout (taproot) after several more days.

If you wish to remove the hulls, stir the sprouts in a bowl of cold water until the husks rise. Skim them off and drain the sprouts thoroughly. You may serve at once, or leave to drain for a few hours and refrigerate in a zip-top bag or container with a paper towel in the bottom. Some sprouts will keep for several weeks in the refrigerator, but we recommend eating them within 5 days for the best flavor.

The main difference between sprouts and microgreens is that microgreens are planted in soil, and the greens are cut at soil level before eating. Certain seeds, such as cress, brown mustard, arugula, flax, and chia form a mucilaginous gel-like sack when they come in contact with water. They cannot be sprouted in the conventional method detailed above.

To grow microgreens, thoroughly moisten a planting medium—anything that can retain moisture is acceptable—soil, vermiculite, fabric, or microgreen-specific medium—and scatter the seeds in a thin layer on top. Keep the medium and seeds moist by watering regularly for 7 to 14 days. When sprouted, leave the sprouts on the germinating surface. Keep them moist and exposed to light until the two small leaves are green and about ⅛ inch long. Harvest by cutting the stems just above the planting medium, rinse, pat dry, and serve. Microgreens are not only delicious, but a beautiful garnish for all kinds of dishes. They store poorly once harvested. They can be refrigerated in a zip-top bag or container when dry to the touch, but they will wilt quickly.

This thick syrup is made of sugar and just enough water to dissolve it and steam any stray crystals from the sides of the pan. It will set up firmly, which allows it to be the glue that holds together a Croquembouche.

Place in a small heavy saucepan:

Drizzle evenly over the top:

Place the pan over medium heat and, without stirring, very gently swirl the pan until a clear syrup forms. It is important that the sugar dissolve and the syrup clarify before it boils, so slide the pan on and off the burner as necessary. Once the sugar is dissolved, increase the heat to high and bring the syrup to a rolling boil. Cover the pan tightly and boil for 2 minutes. Uncover the pan and cook the syrup until it begins to darken. Gently swirl the pan once again, then cook the syrup until it turns a deep amber, or registers about 360°F on a thermometer.

Store the syrup tightly covered at room temperature. The syrup hardens on standing, but if stored in a heatproof jar, it is easily melted by heating the jar gently in hot water.

This category of sugars is a diverse one. Unrefined sugars have a wide range of textures, colors, and flavors. Due to the fact that they are less processed than white or brown sugar, they are more variable. When used in cooking, the cook should consider their unique characters, as they will add their own flavors to any dish they are used in. These sugars are not commonly used in baking, though they may be in some instances. Be aware, however, that unrefined sugars will not behave like refined ones.

Muscovado sugar has a very high molasses content. It is the sugar produced during the final crystallization of sugar from the reduced and concentrated sugarcane syrup (after this final crystallization, the syrup is filtered of waste products and becomes molasses). Muscovado sugar is very dark and flavorful. Use it as you would brown sugar, knowing that it will add its own characteristic flavor.

Turbinado or raw sugar is processed from sugarcane. It is partially refined in a turbine, thus the name, and the crystals have had their molasses coating partially washed off. With coarse, beige crystals, turbinado sugar is closest in character to the yellow or brownish demerara sugar often called for in British recipes. Demerara sugar comes from the first crystallization of cane juice and has a pale golden color and mild, caramel flavor. Substitute turbinado or demerara sugar cup for cup for granulated sugar, but be aware of their heavier molasses flavor and larger crystal size, which can make them harder to dissolve. These sugars are excellent sprinkled on top of baked goods for crunch and sweetness. We also like to dust the insides of buttered baking pans with these coarse sugars as they melt during baking, providing a darker, caramelized crust.

Piloncillo is an unrefined sugar from Mexico, though this type of unrefined sugar is used all over Central and South America under different names, among them chancaca, rapadura, and panela. It is often sold in dense, light to dark brown cakes or cones, although it may also be found granulated. To use it in cooking, grate it on the large holes of a box grater or chop it into fine pieces with a knife.

Sucanat is dried pure sugar cane juice. The name (a registered trademark) is an abbreviation of sucre de canne naturel or “natural cane sugar.” Sucanat is much lighter by weight than the same volume of granulated sugar, and it has a mild molasses flavor. To substitute Sucanat for 1 cup granulated sugar, use 1 ¼ cups Sucanat and grind it in a spice or coffee grinder before adding to baked goods.

Palm sugar is a coarse brown sugar made from the evaporated sap of different types of palm trees. It is usually sold in pucks or cones much like piloncillo and can be grated or chopped into small pieces for use in cooking. Jaggery is very similar to palm sugar, but it is often made from a combination of palm sap and sugarcane juice. It is commonly used in Indian cooking.

Coconut sugar is a granulated sugar made from the sap of the bud stems of coconut palms. It may be found in puck form, much like jaggery and piloncillo, or granulated. This type of sugar is used across Southeast Asia. Coconut sugar is sometimes called palm sugar, though palm sugar is made from the sap of a variety of palm trees, while coconut sugar is made specifically from coconut palm sap. Coconut sugar, palm sugar, and jaggery are all interchangeable in recipes, though they should not be substituted in recipes calling for granulated sugar.

Maple sugar is made by boiling maple syrup until most of the liquid has evaporated. It has a distinctive, strong, sweet taste. Because of its high cost, it is often reserved for flavoring. It is sold in both block and granulated form. For maple sugar in a block, grate or shave it before combining it with other ingredients. For using in baked goods, substitute maple sugar for one-third of the total sugar called for in the recipe.

All brown sugar is made in one of two ways: Raw sugar is dissolved in a syrup, then recrystallized; or refined white sugar is mixed with molasses so the syrup coats the sugar crystals. As a result, brown sugar is a moister cane or beet sugar with a light or dark brown color and more complex flavor than white sugar. As brown sugar hardens and lumps easily, keep it in a tightly covered container or in a tightly closed plastic bag. If the sugar should become hard, place it in a dish, cover with plastic wrap, and microwave on high in 30-second intervals, using a fork to break up the sugar. Or place in a resealable zip-top bag, add half an apple or a slice of bread to the bag, seal, and let stand. Remove the apple when the sugar softens. In this book, if neither light nor dark brown sugar is specified, either type can be used. Use dark brown sugar when a stronger flavor or darker color is wanted.

To measure brown sugar, pack it firmly into the measuring cup and level it by pressing with the palm of your hand. To substitute brown sugar for granulated sugar, use 1 cup firmly packed brown sugar for each 1 cup granulated sugar.

Pourable granulated brown sugar is also widely available. Depending on the brand, it may not be as sweet, so be sure you know what you are buying and follow the directions on the package when using in recipes.

In this book, when the word “sugar” appears with no qualifiers, it means granulated white sugar—beet sugar or cane sugar, both being 99.5 percent pure sucrose. Granulated sugar can be used for almost every purpose, even for meringue. One pound of granulated sugar equals approximately 2 cups.

Coarse or decorating sugar is large-crystal granulated sugar and may be clear, white, or tinted colors.

Also called bar or berry sugar, superfine sugar is a finer grind of granulated sugar. It is between granulated sugar and powdered sugar in consistency. Because it dissolves readily, it is used in meringues, for macerating fruits, and in cocktails and other drinks. The crystals are too small for creaming with butter in making cakes, cookies, or in any baking where the sugar crystals must “cut” into the butter. If it becomes lumpy, put the sugar in a plastic bag and use a rolling pin to crush the lumps. Make superfine sugar at home with a food processor, pulsing granulated sugar until fine and powder like. Superfine sugar can be substituted cup for cup for granulated sugar where appropriate.

To color granulated sugar, sprinkle 1 cup sugar with 10 to 12 drops food coloring and mix well until the sugar is evenly tinted. Pour the sugar onto a rimmed baking sheet and allow it to dry for about 3 hours.

Keep these on hand for quick flavoring.

Mix 1 cup sugar with 2 tablespoons ground cinnamon.

Mix 1 cup sugar with 1 to 2 tablespoons grated lemon, orange, or lime zest. Let stand, covered, for 5 to 7 days before using.

Split 1 or 2 vanilla beans in half lengthwise and scrape out the seeds with the tip of a spoon. Mix the seeds and pods with 2 cups sugar, making sure the seeds are evenly dispersed, and store tightly sealed in a canister. The vanilla bean pods can be left in the canister indefinitely.

Powdered sugar, also called confectioners’ sugar, is a bright white powdery sugar. Its finest form, known as 10X, is the type sold packaged at most markets. In order to lessen clumping, a small quantity of cornstarch is added to the sugar during processing. If it does clump, sift it. Sometimes the cornstarch gives uncooked icings a raw flavor. If desired, before spreading this kind of mixture, you can heat it for about 10 minutes in a double boiler over boiling water. Alternatively, use organic powdered sugar, which is made with tapioca starch instead of cornstarch. Tapioca starch granules, unlike cornstarch granules, absorb moisture and start to swell before being heated. This gives it an advantage in uncooked icings, as it thickens them and makes them smooth and creamy. Do not try to substitute powdered sugar for granulated in baking—its texture gives a different crumb to cakes. In other uses, substitute 1 ¾ cups powdered sugar for 1 cup granulated sugar.

Lump sugar and sugar cubes are granulated sugar molded or cut into rectangles or cubes for use in hot drinks and cocktails. Crystals of Rock Candy make an interesting stand-in for lump sugar and, when separated or crushed, a sparkling garnish for frosted cakes or other desserts.

Pearl sugar is coarse chunks of sugar made by compressing white sugar crystals and sifting them to get a specific particle size. It is used primarily as a topping on baked goods in Western Europe. Belgian pearl sugar is larger than Swedish pearl sugar and is better suited to making Liège waffles, while smaller, hard bits of Swedish pearl sugar are ideal for topping pastries, cakes, cookies, and breads, from France’s chouquettes (small choux pastry puffs topped with pearl sugar before baking) to Scandinavian cakes and pastries.

Made from refined sugarcane juice and used as a sweetener for various Chinese desserts and soups, this sugar is sold in lumps and is available at Asian markets. It is usually crushed or broken into small pieces before use.

Some sugar substitutes can be used in cooking or baking, according to the manufacturer’s directions. However, they do not give the same texture and color in baking as do true sugars and should be used only in recipes especially developed for them. Saccharin is a synthetic sweetener commonly used at the table. It is three hundred times sweeter than sucrose (granulated sugar), but it has a slightly metallic aftertaste. It does not contribute any calories because it is not metabolized in the body. Saccharin should not be cooked, as it becomes bitter when heated. Aspartame is technically considered a nutritive sweetener, contributing 4 calories per gram. However, aspartame is two hundred times sweeter than sugar and very little of it is needed to achieve sweetness. Therefore, its caloric contribution is negligible. Sucralose is a white crystalline powder made from the chlorination of sucrose. It is four hundred to eight hundred times sweeter than granulated sugar. It is stable when subjected to heat, and it can be used in a variety of drinks, baked goods, and frozen and canned fruits and vegetables. Its chemical structure is very close to that of sucrose, but it is noncaloric. Acesulfame potassium is two hundred times sweeter than sugar.

“Natural” sugar substitutes have gained favor in recent years, though they have many of the same drawbacks as the chemically derived sweeteners discussed above. These include stevia, which is made from a South American plant traditionally used to sweeten yerba mate tea. It is sold in powder and liquid form. The liquid form is highly concentrated. Some powdered stevia is formulated to be used as a cup for cup replacement for sugar in baking. While this may technically be true, we find baked goods made with stevia alone to have an off-putting aftertaste. Use stevia for up to half the sugar in baking recipes for the best flavor. Recipes with strong-flavored ingredients like chocolate and peanut butter tend to hide the flavor of stevia best. Use very concentrated forms of stevia, such as liquid stevia, as directed by the manufacturer. Remember that if you use concentrated stevia in a recipe, you will need to compensate for the missing bulk of the sugar by adding egg whites, applesauce, yogurt, or mashed banana. For every 1 cup sugar substituted for in a recipe, add ⅓ cup of one of these bulking agents.

Xylitol is extracted from birch trees and is exactly as sweet as sucrose (sugar). It has a slight cooling effect on the tongue, somewhat like the sensation of chewing a mint leaf. It may be substituted cup for cup for granulated sugar, and it contains 40 percent fewer calories than sugar. It does not have a bitter aftertaste, though ingesting too much xylitol can have a laxative effect.

Monk fruit extract is made from the fruit of a plant related to cucumbers, squash, and melons. It is three hundred times sweeter than sugar and is usually mixed with bulking agents and sold in powder form. It has a bitter aftertaste. For best results, do not substitute more than half the sugar in a recipe with monk fruit extract.

This cooking process is similar to how apple butter is made: The ingredients are all simmered together until the tomatoes are broken down, then the mixture is put through a food mill to remove the skins and whole spices, and finally the puree is reduced until thick.

Combine in a large pot:

Bring to a simmer and cook gently until the tomatoes are very soft, stirring frequently. Put the mixture through a food mill and discard the skins and whole spices. Return the mixture to the pot and simmer, stirring frequently, until the pulp is thick and reduced by about half, several hours.

Divide the paste between 2 large rimmed baking sheets and spread evenly. Make short cuts into the paste to let air penetrate. Place the paste in a 200°F oven until it is so dry that it retains its shape, 3 to 4 hours.

Pack it into sterilized jars or ice cube trays or a combination. Freeze the ice cube trays, then store the cubes of tomato paste in a zip-top bag in the freezer. For jarred tomato paste, pour olive oil over the top of the tomato paste to cover it, then secure the jars with lids. Store in the refrigerator for up to 2 months. Alternatively, transfer the paste to zip-top bags and press the paste so it is in a thin, even layer. Freeze the bags flat. When needed, simply break off a piece of tomato paste.

Cut lengthwise in half:

Using the tip of a spoon, scrape the seeds from the pods. Place the pods and seeds in a pint jar. Cover with:

Close the jar tightly and shake every so often. When the alcohol is deep brown, 1 to 1 ½ months, the vanilla is ready to use.

Wash and thoroughly dry:

Add to a sterilized 1-quart canning jar along with:

Heat slowly in a small saucepan to just below the boiling point:

Pour into the jar and let the mixture cool. Close the jar and let the mixture infuse for 2 weeks, shaking the jar every day.

Taste. If the vinegar is still not flavored to your liking, let it infuse longer, sampling each day, until it is ready. Pour through a fine-mesh sieve lined with several thicknesses of cheesecloth and transfer to sterilized glass bottles, if desired. Seal and store at room temperature for up to 12 months.

Use in dressings or sauces.

Add to a sterilized 1-quart canning jar:

Slowly heat in a small saucepan to just below the boiling point:

Pour into the jar and let the mixture cool. Seal, infuse, strain, and store as directed for Shallot-Herb Vinegar.

To our minds, this vinegar’s level of heat after 5 days is perfect for sprinkling over Southern-Style Greens. On the other hand, your taste (and tolerance) may vary. For spicier results, add more chiles than we specify—or steep them for longer. Adding garlic to the mixture makes for an excellent condiment as well: Use the quantities listed in Garlic Vinegar. Simply heat the vinegar and pour over the garlic as directed, then let the mixture cool before adding the chiles.

Have ready one of the following:

Add to a sterilized 1-quart canning jar along with:

Close the jar and let the mixture infuse. Shake the jar and taste each day to check the strength and flavor; allow about 3 days and up to 1 week—or more, if you desire a spicier vinegar. Strain and store as directed for Shallot-Herb Vinegar.

The particulars of the milk you use will determine its consistency. Whole cow’s milk will set up very thick. Low-fat, nonfat, or goat milk will not be as thick. In fact, it might be the consistency of drinkable yogurt. If you prefer thicker yogurt, there are a few things you can do. One is to hold the milk at 180°F for 30 minutes, which will denature some of the whey proteins and cause them to form a thicker gel. Another option is to whisk in ¼ cup dry milk powder for every 1 quart liquid milk before heating it. Finally, you can thicken the yogurt after it has set by ladling it into a colander lined with a flour sack towel and letting it stand until enough whey has drained off for the yogurt to be thickened to your liking.

For this recipe you will need a system for keeping the milk warm as it sets. This can be a small cooler filled with towels. A heating pad or seedling heat mat can be another good option. Insulated containers made specifically for yogurt making are also available, as well as proofing boxes. If you have an immersion circulator, fill a pot or other vessel with water, attach the circulator, and program it to 109°F. When the water is preheated, place the sealed jar of cultured milk in the vessel (the water should completely cover the jar) and let the yogurt set for 5 to 8 hours or until thickened.

Wash a 1-quart wide-mouth glass jar with soap and hot water. Rinse thoroughly, then rinse again with boiling water. Let it dry completely.

Pour into a saucepan or double-boiler:

Heat the milk over medium heat to 180°F, stirring often. If desired, for a thicker yogurt, hold the milk at this temperature, stirring occasionally, for up to 30 minutes. (The easiest way to do this is by using a double-boiler to prevent the milk from scorching.)

Fill the sink with cold water, set the pan of milk in the water bath, and stir constantly until the temperature reaches 118°F. Be careful at this stage because the temperature will drop rapidly, and if the milk gets too cool, it will not set properly.

Stir in:

Stir the milk to disperse the culture, then insulate it using the method of your choosing (see the headnote). After 4 hours, check the milk. If it is not yet ready, check it again in 2 more hours. It may take up to 8 hours for the milk to set. Refrigerate the yogurt.

For every 1 cup yogurt, you will end up with roughly ½ cup yogurt cheese.

Line a strainer or colander with several layers of cheesecloth or a flour sack towel and set over a bowl. Spoon in:

Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate until the consistency of cream cheese, 12 to 24 hours.

Discard the whey or save it for smoothies, baking, or marinades. Keep in the refrigerator for up to 1 week. Pour off any liquid that accumulates before using.