This thick syrup is made of sugar and just enough water to dissolve it and steam any stray crystals from the sides of the pan. It will set up firmly, which allows it to be the glue that holds together a Croquembouche.

Place in a small heavy saucepan:

Drizzle evenly over the top:

Place the pan over medium heat and, without stirring, very gently swirl the pan until a clear syrup forms. It is important that the sugar dissolve and the syrup clarify before it boils, so slide the pan on and off the burner as necessary. Once the sugar is dissolved, increase the heat to high and bring the syrup to a rolling boil. Cover the pan tightly and boil for 2 minutes. Uncover the pan and cook the syrup until it begins to darken. Gently swirl the pan once again, then cook the syrup until it turns a deep amber, or registers about 360°F on a thermometer.

Store the syrup tightly covered at room temperature. The syrup hardens on standing, but if stored in a heatproof jar, it is easily melted by heating the jar gently in hot water.

This category of sugars is a diverse one. Unrefined sugars have a wide range of textures, colors, and flavors. Due to the fact that they are less processed than white or brown sugar, they are more variable. When used in cooking, the cook should consider their unique characters, as they will add their own flavors to any dish they are used in. These sugars are not commonly used in baking, though they may be in some instances. Be aware, however, that unrefined sugars will not behave like refined ones.

Muscovado sugar has a very high molasses content. It is the sugar produced during the final crystallization of sugar from the reduced and concentrated sugarcane syrup (after this final crystallization, the syrup is filtered of waste products and becomes molasses). Muscovado sugar is very dark and flavorful. Use it as you would brown sugar, knowing that it will add its own characteristic flavor.

Turbinado or raw sugar is processed from sugarcane. It is partially refined in a turbine, thus the name, and the crystals have had their molasses coating partially washed off. With coarse, beige crystals, turbinado sugar is closest in character to the yellow or brownish demerara sugar often called for in British recipes. Demerara sugar comes from the first crystallization of cane juice and has a pale golden color and mild, caramel flavor. Substitute turbinado or demerara sugar cup for cup for granulated sugar, but be aware of their heavier molasses flavor and larger crystal size, which can make them harder to dissolve. These sugars are excellent sprinkled on top of baked goods for crunch and sweetness. We also like to dust the insides of buttered baking pans with these coarse sugars as they melt during baking, providing a darker, caramelized crust.

Piloncillo is an unrefined sugar from Mexico, though this type of unrefined sugar is used all over Central and South America under different names, among them chancaca, rapadura, and panela. It is often sold in dense, light to dark brown cakes or cones, although it may also be found granulated. To use it in cooking, grate it on the large holes of a box grater or chop it into fine pieces with a knife.

Sucanat is dried pure sugar cane juice. The name (a registered trademark) is an abbreviation of sucre de canne naturel or “natural cane sugar.” Sucanat is much lighter by weight than the same volume of granulated sugar, and it has a mild molasses flavor. To substitute Sucanat for 1 cup granulated sugar, use 1 ¼ cups Sucanat and grind it in a spice or coffee grinder before adding to baked goods.

Palm sugar is a coarse brown sugar made from the evaporated sap of different types of palm trees. It is usually sold in pucks or cones much like piloncillo and can be grated or chopped into small pieces for use in cooking. Jaggery is very similar to palm sugar, but it is often made from a combination of palm sap and sugarcane juice. It is commonly used in Indian cooking.

Coconut sugar is a granulated sugar made from the sap of the bud stems of coconut palms. It may be found in puck form, much like jaggery and piloncillo, or granulated. This type of sugar is used across Southeast Asia. Coconut sugar is sometimes called palm sugar, though palm sugar is made from the sap of a variety of palm trees, while coconut sugar is made specifically from coconut palm sap. Coconut sugar, palm sugar, and jaggery are all interchangeable in recipes, though they should not be substituted in recipes calling for granulated sugar.

Maple sugar is made by boiling maple syrup until most of the liquid has evaporated. It has a distinctive, strong, sweet taste. Because of its high cost, it is often reserved for flavoring. It is sold in both block and granulated form. For maple sugar in a block, grate or shave it before combining it with other ingredients. For using in baked goods, substitute maple sugar for one-third of the total sugar called for in the recipe.

All brown sugar is made in one of two ways: Raw sugar is dissolved in a syrup, then recrystallized; or refined white sugar is mixed with molasses so the syrup coats the sugar crystals. As a result, brown sugar is a moister cane or beet sugar with a light or dark brown color and more complex flavor than white sugar. As brown sugar hardens and lumps easily, keep it in a tightly covered container or in a tightly closed plastic bag. If the sugar should become hard, place it in a dish, cover with plastic wrap, and microwave on high in 30-second intervals, using a fork to break up the sugar. Or place in a resealable zip-top bag, add half an apple or a slice of bread to the bag, seal, and let stand. Remove the apple when the sugar softens. In this book, if neither light nor dark brown sugar is specified, either type can be used. Use dark brown sugar when a stronger flavor or darker color is wanted.

To measure brown sugar, pack it firmly into the measuring cup and level it by pressing with the palm of your hand. To substitute brown sugar for granulated sugar, use 1 cup firmly packed brown sugar for each 1 cup granulated sugar.

Pourable granulated brown sugar is also widely available. Depending on the brand, it may not be as sweet, so be sure you know what you are buying and follow the directions on the package when using in recipes.

In this book, when the word “sugar” appears with no qualifiers, it means granulated white sugar—beet sugar or cane sugar, both being 99.5 percent pure sucrose. Granulated sugar can be used for almost every purpose, even for meringue. One pound of granulated sugar equals approximately 2 cups.

Coarse or decorating sugar is large-crystal granulated sugar and may be clear, white, or tinted colors.

Also called bar or berry sugar, superfine sugar is a finer grind of granulated sugar. It is between granulated sugar and powdered sugar in consistency. Because it dissolves readily, it is used in meringues, for macerating fruits, and in cocktails and other drinks. The crystals are too small for creaming with butter in making cakes, cookies, or in any baking where the sugar crystals must “cut” into the butter. If it becomes lumpy, put the sugar in a plastic bag and use a rolling pin to crush the lumps. Make superfine sugar at home with a food processor, pulsing granulated sugar until fine and powder like. Superfine sugar can be substituted cup for cup for granulated sugar where appropriate.

To color granulated sugar, sprinkle 1 cup sugar with 10 to 12 drops food coloring and mix well until the sugar is evenly tinted. Pour the sugar onto a rimmed baking sheet and allow it to dry for about 3 hours.